Crude to cultivated: Biorefineries use biosolutions to replace oil

It’s staggering to think about how much oil we use. In 2023, we extracted around 96 million barrels each day¹ – That’s about 15 billion liters (nearly 4 billion gallons), which is like every individual on the planet using roughly 2 liters (half a gallon) of oil every single day.

But here’s the catch: while oil has been the engine of our modern world, it has become a serious concern for causing irreparable damage to the environment, including being a leading cause of climate change. It has become imperative that we reduce our dependence on oil and find better alternatives.

One key to this shift away from oil lies in something called biorefineries, which leverage the power of enzymes derived from microbes – like bacteria and fungi – to transform plants into useful products.

An example of this is the production of plant-based fuels for cars, aeroplanes, and ships. This could drastically cut our dependence on oil. Why? Because, a massive share of every barrel of oil produced – about 87 percent – is refined to produce transportation fuels.²

But it’s not just about fuel. Plants can also help us create other products that are currently made from oil, like plastics and chemicals.

From scavenging to drilling for oil

Did you know that humans have used oil for thousands of years? You might be surprised to know that ancient civilisations, including the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Chinese, utilized oil for a variety of purposes. These early uses were based on scavenging oil from areas where oil naturally seeped to the surface through cracks in the Earth. However, oil did not play a major role in humanity’s progress till the second half of the 19th century.

^{Edward drake innovative oil drill.}
It all started in 1859, in the small town of Titusville, Pennsylvania, USA when a businessman named Edwin Drake used an innovative way to drill the Earth to extract oil³. Drake's team drilled down 21 metres, through the bedrock, before striking oil. His invention spurred global commercial interest in drilling oil wells as oil was no longer a resource that had to be scavenged. It could be extracted as desired!⁴

Oil saves whales, refineries make the world go round

The first electric bulb was invented in 1879 and only decades after that households were electrified. So, people were using lamps to light up their homes even during the first few decades of the 20th century.

Before oil became widely available, people relied on whale fat, or "whale oil," to light up their lamps. This practice led to the overhunting of whales, pushing some species to the brink of extinction. However, once oil drilling became widespread and oil availability increased, the dark days of whale hunting for fuel faded.

Burning crude oil in lamps came with its own set of problems — smoke and unpleasant odors. This prompted oil producers to refine the oil and provide people with a cleaner fuel. Enter kerosene: the refined oil that burned cleaner and with less odor.

Here’s some trivia about oil refineries: the process of producing kerosene was pioneered by a Polish pharmacist named Ignacy Łukasiewicz in 1853. He not only developed the world’s first kerosene lamp but also set up the world’s first oil refinery in Jasło, Poland, in 1856. While it was quite modest, the real game-changer came a year later with the first large-scale refinery in Ploiești, Romania⁴. These early refineries started with oil from natural seepages, turning it into usable kerosene and later started refining oil extracted through drilling.

News of Edwin Drake’s innovative drilling technique reached American shores and sparked a flurry of investment. Industrialists quickly jumped on the bandwagon, building huge refineries across the US and making the most of this newfound oil.

Now, here’s a twist in the tale: in the early days, petrol (gasoline) was actually considered a waste product! The first ever petrol-run automobile was developed by Karl Benz in 1886⁶ and was soon followed by cars developed by various automobile companies. As the number of cars increased, so did the demand for petrol from oil refineries.

Over the years, as the oil refining technology improved, more products were derived from it, including diesel for diesel-run vehicles and oil-based chemicals needed to make plastics.

Oil refineries now transform crude oil into an array of valuable products and byproducts. Here’s a quick rundown of some of them and their uses:

• Transportation: Petrol (gas), diesel, aviation, and marine fuels.
   
• Heating oil: Fuels furnaces and boilers for heating homes and businesses.
   
• Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG): Used for heating, cooking, and in some vehicles.
   
• Asphalt: Essential for road construction and roofing materials.
   
• Lubricating oils: Keep engines and machinery running smoothly, including motor oil and gear oil.
   
• Petrochemicals: Serve as the building blocks for plastics, synthetic rubber, fibres like nylon and polyester, fertilizers, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals.
   
• Naphtha: Used to make high-octane petrol and as a solvent in cleaning products.
   
• Bitumen: Used in road surfacing and waterproofing.
   
• Paraffin wax: Found in candles, packaging, cosmetics, and as a food coating.

Unravelling the environmental impacts of oil

The downside of our oil obsession began to come into focus in the 1950s. Dr. Arie Haagen-Smit, a clever scientist from Caltech, made a startling discovery: the smog hanging over California was actually due to exhaust from cars⁷. This was a big moment because it brought the term “air pollution” into the public conversation. People were starting to realize that burning oil and other fossil fuels wasn’t just about fuel and power; it had some serious environmental and health impacts too.

But the wake-up call didn’t stop there. In 1967 the oil tanker Torrey Canyon ran aground off Cornwall’s coast, spilling over 37 million gallons⁸ of crude oil into the sea. Then in 1989, the Exxon Valdez spill took place, spilling around 11 million gallons⁹ of oil into Prince William Sound in Alaska. The heartbreaking images of oil-covered birds and sea otters brought the harsh reality of oil’s impact right into the living rooms of people.

By the late 1980s, scientists like James Hansen from NASA were connecting the dots between global warming and the burning of fossil fuels like oil¹⁰. In 1988, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up to study climate change¹¹. In its 1992 report, the IPCC pointed out that the burning of fossil fuels like oil, gas, and coal was one of the primary contributors to the rise in carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere contributing to global warming¹².

^{Environmental impact of oil.}

As we move into the 21st century, the evidence of oil's impact becomes even more glaring. Now according to the UN, almost 90 percent of global carbon dioxide emissions are due to the burning of fossil fuels, which includes oil, coal, and gas¹³.

Imagine if we could move away from digging deep into the Earth for oil and instead rely on something that’s all around us and can be replenished naturally—like plants.

Biorefineries, turning every part of a plant into valuable resources

^{Biorefineries produce fuel, plastic, chemicals and char.}

To understand the purpose and function of biorefineries, you must first learn something marvelous about the hunting practices followed by indigenous tribes. Due to their profound respect for nature, they utilize every part of a hunted animal's body – meat for food, hide for clothing and shelter, bones for tools, and even ligaments for binding materials.

This holistic approach not only honors the animal but ensures that nothing goes to waste as every part has some utility.

You can argue that biorefineries operate on a similar philosophy: breaking down plants into their various components and converting each one into valuable products.

The common practice across the world is we take whatever is the most easily usable part of a plant or a tree – fruits, timber, or seeds – and throw the rest away. For example, we harvest corn kernels and the cane from sugarcane but often waste the husks, leaves, and stalks.

^{What happens if we use all plant parts.}

What happens to the unused parts of the plants? Most of it is condemned as waste or is incinerated. This wasteful usage of plants offers an opportunity for improvement.

For example, plants use a lot of resources to grow, including water, fertilizers, and soil nutrients. The more the whole plant is used, including what is often considered waste, the more value we get from each resource.

This is where biorefineries come into the picture. Here, plants are stripped down to their fundamental components and transformed into a range of valuable products, thus ensuring their maximum utilization.

But what are these components into which plants are stripped down and what are their uses? Think of plants and trees like buildings. Buildings are constructed from materials such as bricks, cement, wood, and metal, each serving a unique purpose. Similarly, plants are made up of different materials at the molecular level that give each part — stem, roots, leaves, shoots, trunk, and fruits — its specific texture and function. Let’s explore some of these important building blocks:

• Cellulose: Imagine the rigid, sturdy concrete beams of a house. Cellulose acts like these beams, providing structural support to the plant.
   
• Hemicellulose: Like how cement ensures all bricks in a wall are well-attached to each other, hemicellulose binds cellulose fibers together, providing strength and flexibility to plants.
   
• Lignin: Lignin is the substance that gives the wood in tree trunks their strength and durability. It provides rigidity and structural support, helping plants stay upright and resist decay.
   
• Starch: Picture starch as the plant's stored energy, similar to saving snacks for later. It’s what makes fruits sweet, cereals sticky, and potatoes dense. Starch acts as a reserve of energy that plants can use when needed.

So, what makes biorefineries so effective at breaking down plants and turning them into useful products? The key is enzymes and yeast.

Enzymes are natural, catalytic proteins found in all living organisms, from tiny microbes like bacteria and yeast to plants, animals, and humans. Biorefineries use enzymes from microbes to break down plants into their various components. Here are a few examples of enzymes used in biorefineries:

1. Cellulases: These enzymes break down cellulose from plant fibers like stalks into sugar, which can then be fermented into ethanol, a cleaner fuel alternative to gasoline.
    
2. Amylases: These enzymes convert starch from materials like corn kernels and sweet potatoes into sugar, which can be turned into ethanol.
    
3. Proteases: These enzymes break down proteins in peptides and amino acids, which can increase the release of distiller’s corn oil, a feedstock for renewable diesel and SAF (Sustainable Aviation Fuel).

Once the enzymes have done their job, it’s the turn of yeast to show its magic by fermenting these broken-down plant components into useful products. This process also releases carbon dioxide gas, which can be further processed into valuable products through a process called Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU).

Humans have shared a relationship with yeast for thousands of years. Yeast-driven fermentation has given us many solutions that have enriched our lives and it holds a key to securing our future, including against climate change. Curious to know more? Discover how yeast, fermentation, and their roles impact our lives here.

Another type of biorefinery is known as a wet mill. In a wet mill, corn is first steeped in a liquid to soften the kernels. The softened corn is ground and processed into separate components such as starch, gluten, and fiber. The extracted components can then be refined into a range of products, including human and animal-edible foods like high-fructose corn syrup, corn oil, and corn gluten meal. Wet mills allow for the efficient utilization of each part of the corn, maximizing its value and providing a diverse array of food and industrial products.
 

How can biorefineries help reduce oil dependence?

The biggest benefit of biorefineries is that they provide a way of utilising plants to produce a host of products, for which we have been reliant mainly on oil. These include:

1. Biofuels: Biorefineries are at the forefront of producing transportation fuels from plants and this goes a long way, as biofuels emit between 19% - 86% less greenhouse gases than petrol¹⁴. The biofuels derived from plants in biorefineries include:
   1. Ethanol: Derived from crops like corn and sugarcane, ethanol is commonly blended with gasoline to reduce emissions and dependence on fossil fuels.
   2. Biodiesel: Produced from vegetable oils, municipal sludge, and algae, biodiesel can be used in diesel engines, offering a cleaner alternative to petroleum diesel.
   3. Sustainable Aviation Fuels: Ethanol produced in biorefineries or waste cooking oil can be further processed into SAF. 
2. Bioplastics: Plastics are essential in modern life, but most are made from oil. Biorefineries can help create plastics from renewable resources like Polylactic Acid (PLA), which is made from fermented plant sugars. PLA is used in items like packaging and disposable cutlery, providing a biodegradable alternative to conventional plastics.
3. Bio-based chemicals: Many chemicals are derived from oil, but biorefineries can produce these from plant-based sources. One such chemical is succinic acid, a versatile chemical, found in household cleaning products, pharmaceuticals, and food additives.
4. Biochar and agricultural Inputs: Biorefineries also produce biochar from plant residues and organic waste. Biochar, a form of charcoal if you will, enhances soil fertility and reduces the need for synthetic fertilizers, which are often petroleum-based.

5. Biogas: Biogas produced from plants with the help of enzymes and microbes can be used for heating or electricity, offering an alternative to natural gas.
6. Animal feed: Dried distillers’ grains with solubles (DDGs) are a byproduct from ethanol production, and can be used as high-quality feed for livestock.

Embracing plants and enzymes for a greener future

Crude oil has undeniably shaped human civilization, driving progress and innovation. However, its environmental toll and contribution to climate change have become impossible to ignore. The call for cleaner, greener alternatives has led us to the groundbreaking realm of biorefineries. By harnessing the transformative power of enzymes, we can transform plants and other organic waste into biofuels, bioplastics, and bio-based chemicals. This shift from crude to cultivated is not merely a necessity but an opportunity to improve our relationship with the planet.